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Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medicinal botany,[citation needed] medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, and phytotherapy. Sometimes the scope of herbal medicine is extended to include fungi and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts.
Many plants synthesize substances that are useful to the maintenance of health in humans and other animals. These include aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Many are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated — a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these substances (particularly the alkaloids) serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds.Lai PK (Jun 2004). "Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices.". Curr Med Chem: 1451-60. PMID 15180577. Tapsell LC (Aug 2006). "Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future.". Med J Aust 1. PMID 17022438.
People on all continents have used hundreds to thousands of indigenous plants for treatment of ailments since prehistoric times.History of Plants in Medicine. There is evidence from the Shanidar Cave in Iraq that suggests Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago used medicinal plants. A body that was unearthed there had been buried with eight species of plants which are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world.Medicinal plants in a Middle Paleolithic grave Shanidar IV?, Lietava J., J Ethnopharmacol. 1992 Jan;35(3):263-6., PMID 1548898
The first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon-dated to between 13,000-25,000 BC. Medicinal herbs were found in the personal effects of an "Ice man," whose body was frozen in the Swiss Alps for more than 5,300 years, which appear to have been used to treat the parasites found in his intestines.5300 years ago, the Ice Man used natural laxatives and antibiotics, Capasso L., Lancet. 1998;352:1864, PMID 9851424.
Anthropologists theorize that animals evolved a tendency to seek out bitter plant parts in response to illness.The evolution of herbal medicine: behavioral perspectives. This behavior arose because bitterness is an indicator of secondary metabolites. The risk benefit ratio favored animals and protohumans that were inclined to experiment in times of sickness. Over time, and with insight, instinct, and trial-and-error, a base of knowledge would have been acquired within early tribal communities.[http:www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mattjp/Lecture%20Notes/Medicinal%20Plants.doc Medicinal Plants]. As this knowledge base expanded over the generations, the specialized role of the herbalist emerged. The process would likely have occurred in varying manners within a wide diversity of cultures.
Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs they would normally reject.Huffman MA (May 2003). "Animal self-medication and ethno-medicine: exploration and exploitation of the medicinal properties of plants.". Proc Nutr Soc 62 (2): 371-81. PMID 14506884. Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chimpanzees, chickens, sheep and butterflies. Lowland gorillas take 90% of their diet from the fruits of Aframomum melegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, that is a potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infections at bay.Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn From Them, Cindy Engel, Houghton Mifflin, 2002
Researchers from Ohio Wesleyan University found that some birds select nesting material rich in antimicrobial agents which protect their young from harmful bacteria.Jan Ichida, Proceedings of the 104th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. reported in Birds use herbs to protect their nests, BJS, Science Blog, Wed, 2004-05-26
Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in secondary metabolites, such as tannins and alkaloids.Hutchings MR, Athanasiadou S, Kyriazakis I, Gordon IJ (May 2003). "Can animals use foraging behavior to combat parasites?". Proc Nutr Soc. 62 (2): 361. PMID 14506883. Since these phytochemicals often have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antihelminthic properties, a plausible case can be made for self-medication by animals in the wild.
Some animals have digestive systems especially adapted to cope with certain plant toxins. For example, the koala can live on the leaves and shoots of the eucalyptus, a plant that is dangerous to most animals.Phascolarctos cinereus.A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for humans to ingest.Take Time to Identify Toxic Plants to Keep Your Family and Pets Safe. A reasonable conjecture is that these discoveries were traditionally collected by the medicine people of indigenous tribes, who then passed on safety information and cautions.
The use of herbs and spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the threat of food-born pathogens. Studies show that in tropical climes where pathogens are the most abundant recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected. (1998 Mar) "Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot.". Q Rev Biol. 73 (1): 3-49. PMID: 9586227. In all cultures vegetables are spiced less than meat, presumably because they are more resistant to spoilage. (2001 May) "Why vegetable recipes are not very spicy.". Evol Hum Behav. 22 (3): 147-163. PMID: 11384883.
In the written record, the study of herbs dates back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for such plants as laurel, caraway, and thyme. The first known Chinese herb book (or herbal), dating from about 2700 B.C., lists 365 medicinal plants and their uses - including ma-Huang, the shrub that introduced the drug ephedrine to modern medicine. The Egyptians of 1000 B.C. are known to have used garlic, opium, castor oil, coriander, mint, indigo, and other herbs for medicine and the Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation, including mandrake, vetch, caraway, wheat, barley, and rye.
Like their predecessors, the ancient Greeks and Romans made medicinal use of plants. Greek and Roman medicinal practices, as preserved in the writings of Hippocrates and - especially - Galen, provided the patterns for later western medicine. Hippocrates advocated the use of a few simple herbal drugs - along with fresh air, rest, and proper diet. Galen, on the other had, recommended large doses of more or less complicated drug mixtures - including plant, animal, and mineral ingredients. The Greek physician compiled the first European treatise on the properties and uses of medicinal plants, De Materia Medica. In the first century AD, Dioscorides wrote a compendium of more that 500 plants that remained an authoritative reference into the seventeenth century. Similarly important for herbalists and botanists of later centuries was the Greek book that founded the science of botany, Theophrastus’ Historia Plantarum, written in the fourth century B.C.
The uses of plants for medicine and other purposes changed little during the Middle Ages. The early Christian church discouraged the formal practice of medicine, preferring faith healing; but many Greek and Roman writings on medicine, as on other subjects, were preserved by diligent hand copying of manuscripts in monasteries. The monasteries thus tended to become local centers of medical knowledge, and their herb gardens provided the raw materials for simple treatment of common disorders. At the same time, folk medicine in the home and village continues uninterrupted, supporting numerous wandering and settled herbalists. Among these were the “wise-women,” who prescribed herbal remedies often along with spells and enchantments. It was not until the later Middle Ages that women who were knowledgeable in herb lore became the targets of the witch hysteria. One of the most famous women in the herbal tradition was Hildegard of Bingen. A twelfth century Benedictine nun, she wrote a medical text called Causes and Cures.
Medical schools began to return in the eleventh century, teaching Galen’s system. At the time, the Arabic world was more advanced in science than Europe. As a trading culture, the Arabs had access to plant material from distant places such as China and India. Herbals, medical texts and translations of the classics of antiquity filtered in from east to west.Pharmaceutics and Alchemy. Alongside the university system, folk medicine continued to thrive. Plants were burdened with a mass of both pagan and Christian superstition that often was more important than their actual properties. The continuing importance of herbs for the centuries following the Middle Ages is indicated by the hundreds of herbals published after the invention of printing in the fifteenth century. Theophrastus’ Historia Plantarum was one of the first books to be printed, and Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica was not far behind.
The fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries were the great age of herbals, many of them available for the first time in English and other languages rather than Latin or Greek. The first herbal to be published in English was the anonymous Grete Herball of 1526. The two best-known herbals in English wereThe Herball or General History of Plants (1597) by John Gerard and The English Physician Enlarged (1653) by Nicholas Culpeper. Gerard’s text was basically a pirated translation of a book by the Belgian herbalist Dodoens and his illustrations came from a German botanical work. The original edition contained many errors due to faulty matching of the two parts. Culpeper’s blend of traditional medicine with astrology, magic, and folklore was ridiculed by the physicians of his day yet his book - like Gerard’s and other herbals - enjoyed phenomenal popularity. The Age of Exploration and the Columbian Exchange introduced new medicinal plants to Europe. The Badianus Manuscript was an illustrated Aztec herbal translated into Latin in the 16th century.
The second millennium, however, also saw the beginning of a slow erosion of the pre-eminent position held by plants as sources of therapeutic effects. This began with the introduction of the physician, the introduction of active chemical drugs (like arsenic, copper sulfate, iron, mercury, and sulfur), followed by the rapid development of chemistry and the other physical sciences, led increasingly to the dominance of chemotherapy - chemical medicine - as the orthodox system of the twentieth century.
The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non-industrialized societies. (2002) "Biotechnology and the developing world". Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. A number of traditions came to dominate the practice of herbal medicine at the end of the twentieth century:
Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the world\'s population presently uses herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care.Traditional medicine.Herbal medicine is a major component in all traditional medicine systems, and a common element in Ayurvedic, homeopathic, naturopathic, traditional Chinese medicine, and Native American medicine.
The use of, and search for, drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants have accelerated in recent years. Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and natural-products chemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals and leads that could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact, according to the World Health Organisation, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants.Traditional medicine..
- Three quarters of plants that provide active ingredients for prescription drugs came to the attention of researchers because of their use in traditional medicine. (1990) "The role of ethnopharmacology in drug development". Ciba Found Symp. 154: 2-11. PMID: 2086037. [verification needed]
- Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 80 percent show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived. (Mar., 2001) "The Value of Plants Used in Traditional Medicine for Drug Discovery". Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol., Supplement 1: Reviews in Environmental Health, 2001 (), pp. 109 (1): 69-75. doi:10.2307/3434847.
- More than two thirds of the world\'s plant species - at least 35,000 of which are estimated to have medicinal value - come from the developing countries.[verification needed]
- At least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plantsSummary Report for the European Union, 2000-2005, QLK5-CT-2000-00111
The anthocyanins in sweet violet produce deep red, violet and blue shades.
The carotenoids in primrose produce bright red, yellow and orange shades.
All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal metabolic activities. These include primary metabolites, such as sugars and fats, found in all plants, and secondary metabolites found in a smaller range of plants, some useful ones found only in a particular genus or species. Pigments harvest light, protect the organism from radiation and display colors to attract pollinators. Many common weeds have medicinal properties. (June 2004) "The role of weeds as sources of pharmaceuticals". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92 (2-3): 163-166. doi:doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.002. (April 2001) "The importance of weeds in ethnopharmacology". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75 (1): 19-23. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00385-8.
The functions of secondary metabolites are varied. For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation, and others are pheremones used to attract insects for pollination. Phytoalexins protect against bacterial and fungal attacks. Allelochemicals inhibit rival plants that are competing for soil and light.
Plants upregulate and downregulate their biochemical paths in response to the local mix of herbivores, pollinators and microorganisms.Unraveling the Function of Secondary Metabolites. The chemical profile of a single plant may vary over time as it reacts to changing conditions. It is the secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs.
Plants synthesize a bewildering variety of phytochemicals but most are derivatives of a few biochemical motifs.
The word drug itself comes from the Swedish word "druug", which means \'dried plant\'. Some examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove.
The active ingredient in willow bark, once prescribed by Hippocrates, is salicin, or salicylic acid. The discovery of salicylic acid, also known as "acetylsalicylic acid", would eventually lead to the development of "aspirin" when it was isolated from a plant known as meadowsweet. The word aspirin comes from an abbreviation of meadowsweet\'s Latin genus Spiraea, with an additional "A" at the beginning to acknowledge acetylation, and "in" was added at the end for easier pronunciation.The Story of a Wonder Drug. "Aspirin" was originally a brand name, and is still a protected trademark in some countries. This medication was patented by Bayer AG.
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Since herbalism is such a diverse field few generalizations apply universally. Nevertheless a rough consensus can be inferred.
Most herbalists concede that pharmaceuticals are more effective in emergency situations where time is of the essence. An example would be where a patient had elevated blood pressure that posed imminent danger. However they claim that over the long term herbs can help the patient resist disease and in addition provide nutritional and immunological support that pharmaceuticals lack. They view their goal as prevention as well as cure.
Herbalists tend to use extracts from parts of plants, such as the roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals.Andrew Vickers, Catherine Zollman (16). "ABC of complementary medicine: Herbal medicine - Clinical review". British Medical Journal. Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredients on the grounds that dosage can be more easily quantified. Herbalists reject the notion of a single active ingredient. They argue that the different phytochemicals present in many herbs will interact to enhance the therapeutic effects of the herb and dilute toxicity.What is Herb Standardization?.Furthermore, they argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple effects. Herbalists deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synthetic chemicals. They argue that phytochemical interactions and trace components may alter the drug response in ways that cannot currently be replicated with a combination of a few putative active ingredients. (Jan, 1999) "The Problem With Herbs". Natural Health. (2001) "Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines". Phytomedicine 8 (5): 401-409. PMID: 11695885. Pharmaceutical researchers recognize the concept of Drug synergism but note that clinical trials may be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal preparation, provided the formulation of that herb is consistent. (2001) "Herbal Medicines Today and the Roots of Modern Pharmacology". Annals of internal medicine: 594-600.
Thai chili peppers contain capsaicin
In specific cases the claims of synergy (2001) "Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines". Phytomedicine 8 (5): 401-409. and multifunctionality (August 2002) "Emodin – a secondary metabolite with multiple ecological functions in higher plants". New Phytologist 155 (2): 205-217. have been supported by science. The open question is how widely both can be generalized. Herbalists would argue that cases of synergy can be widely generalized, on the basis of their interpretation of evolutionary history, not necessarily shared by the pharmaceutical community. Plants are subject to similar selection pressures as humans and therefore they must develop resistance to threats such as radiation, ROS and microbial attack in order to survive. (June-August 2002) "Plant’s defence and its benefits for animals and medicine: role of phenolics and terpenoids in avoiding oxygen stress". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 40 (6-8): 471-478. doi:10.1016/S0981-9428(02)01395-5. Optimal chemical defenses have been selected for and have thus developed over millions of years. (October 2000) "Medicinal Plants and Phytomedicines. Linking Plant Biochemistry and Physiology to Human Health". Plant Physiol, 124: 507-514. Human diseases are multifactorial and may be treated by consuming the chemical defences that they believe to be present in herbs. Bacteria, inflammation, nutrition and ROS may all play a role in arterial disease. (2007 Oct-Nov) "Atherosclerosis pathophysiology and the role of novel risk factors: a clinicobiochemical perspective.". Angiology. 58 (5): 513-22. PMID: 18024933. Herbalists claim a single herb may simultaneously address several of these factors. Likewise a factor such as ROS may underly more than one condition. (2005 Jun 3 Epub 2005 Apr 26) "Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of \'Rasayana\' herbs of Ayurveda.". J Ethnopharmacol. 99 (2): 165-78. PMID: 15894123. In short herbalists view their field as the study of a web of relationships rather than a quest for single cause and a single cure for a single condition.
In selecting herbal treatments herbalists may use forms of information that are not applicable to pharmacists. Because herbs can moonlight as vegetables, teas or spices they have a huge consumer base and large-scale epidemiological studies become feasible. Ethnobotanical studies are another source of information. (2006) Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer. For example, when indigenous peoples from geographically dispersed areas use closely related herbs for the same purpose that is taken as supporting evidence for its efficacy.[citation needed] Herbalists contend that historical medical records and herbals are underutilized resources. (2002) "History as a tool in identifying "new" old drugs.". Adv Exp Med Biol. (505): 89-94. PMID: 12083469. They favor the use of convergent information in assessing the medical value of plants. An example would be when in-vitro activity is consistent with traditional use.
Certain strains of herbalism rely on sources that would be widely considered unreliable and would not be accepted in a scientifically oriented herbal journal. These include astrology, the Bible, intuition, dreams, “plant spirits”, etc.
A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it was used. The survey was limited to adults, aged 18 years and over during 2002, living in the United States.
According to this survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) when all use of prayer was excluded.Barnes, P M; Powell-Griner E, McFann K, Nahin R L (2004-05-27). Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002 (PDF). Advance data from vital and health statistics; no 343 20. National Center for Health Statistics. 2004. Retrieved on September 16, 2006. (See table 1 on page 8).More Than One-Third of U.S. Adults Use Complementary and Alternative Medicine Press release, May 27, 2004. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal medications are dispensed by apothecaries (e.g., Apotheke). Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal extracts, or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to chemical medications which have been industrially produced.James A. Duke (:23,24,.). "Returning to our Medicinal Roots". Mother Earth News: 26-33.
In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalists is done by state funded Universities. For example, Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal medicine are offered at Universities such as University of East London, Middlesex University, University of Central Lancashire, University of Westminster, University of Lincoln and Napier University in Edinburgh at the present.
Dioscorides’ Materia Medica, c. 1334 copy in Arabic, describes medicinal features of cumin and dill.
Use of medicinal plants can be as informal as, for example, culinary use or consumption of an herbal tea or supplement, although the sale of some herbs considered dangerous is often restricted to the public. Sometimes such herbs are provided to professional herbalists by specialist companies. Many herbalists, both professional and amateur, often grow or "wildcraft" their own herbs.
Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese medicine have attempted to deconstruct ancient medical texts in the light of modern science. One idea is that the yin-yang balance, at least with regard to herbs, corresponds to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance. This interpretation is supported by several investigations of the {ORAC ratings of various yin and yang herbs.Antioxidant activity of 45 Chinese herbs and the relationship with their TCM characteristics.BOXIN OU, DEJIAN HUANG1, MAUREEN HAMPSCH-WOODILL and JUDITH A. FLANAGAN (2003). "When east meets west: the relationship between yin-yang and antioxidation-oxidation". The FASEB Journal 17: 127-129.
Eclectic medicine came out of the vitalist tradition, similar to physiomedicalism and bridged the European and Native American traditions[citation needed]. Cherokee medicine tends to divide herbs into foods, medicines and toxins and to use seven plants in the treatment of disease, which is defined with both spiritual and physiological aspects, according to Cherokee herbalist David Winston.Safety & Regulation--Who\'s Watching the Herbal Store?, Tillotson Institute of Natural Health
In India, Ayurvedic medicine has quite complex formulas with 30 or more ingredients, including a sizable number of ingredients that have undergone "alchemical processing", chosen to balance "Vata", "Pitta" or "Kapha."Tillotson Institute of Natural Health - The Language of Herbs
In addition there are more modern theories of herbal combination like William LeSassier\'s triune formula which combined Pythagorean imagery with Chinese medicine ideas and resulted in 9 herb formulas which supplemented, drained or neutrally nourished the main organ systems affected and three associated systems[citation needed]. His system has been taught to thousands of influential American herbalists through his own apprenticeship programs during his lifetime, the William LeSassier ArchiveWilliam LeSassier Archive website and the David Winston Center for Herbal StudiesDavid Winston Center for Herbal Studies website
There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, these include:
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The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article List of plants used as medicine. (See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.) |
Few herbal remedies have conclusively demonstrated any positive effect on humans. Many of the studies cited refer to animal model investigations or in-vitro assays and therefore cannot provide more than weak supportive evidence.
Pittler MH, Thompson CO, Ernst E (2002). "Artichoke leaf extract for treating hypercholesterolaemia". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003335. PMID 12137691.
Proper double-blind clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before they can be recommended for medical use.Vickers AJ (2007). "Which botanicals or other unconventional anticancer agents
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